Non-absorbable, non-digestible, biocompatible polymers have been used for lowering cholesterol and systemic phosphate levels by targeting adsorption of cholesterol and free phosphate in the gut. These products are biocompatible ion exchange resins that are not absorbed to any significant extent and are excreted from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract after binding their target molecules. For example, the ion exchange resin, cholestyramine, has been used for sequestering bile acids, which are cholesterol derivatives, so as to lower cholesterol. Additionally, non-absorbable, non-digestible, biocompatible activated carbon preparations have been investigated to counteract the effects of toxins in poisoning and drug overdoses (e.g., Dillon et al. (1989), Ann. Emerg. Med. 18(5):547-52; Kieslichova et al. (2018), Transplantation Proc. 50:192-197), and uremic toxins in the treatment of chronic kidney disease (e.g., Schulman et al. (2016), BMC Nephrology 17:141). For example, an activated carbon particle preparation has been developed and utilized for delaying dialysis in subjects suffering from chronic kidney disease, but the clinical utility of this approach has not been roundly accepted, multiple meta-analyses have indicated no clear clinical benefit, and a later stage clinical trial in the US failed to prove efficacy.